SYRIA – “THE WAR WITH MULTIPLE PROXIES”. VIOLATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-2001-21-20Keywords:
civil war; non-international character; mediation; non-discriminatory weapons; violations of human rights and international humanitarian lawAbstract
The civil war in Syria, triggered by the pro-democracy demonstrations of the "Arab Spring", was a complicated combination of religious, cultural and ethnic-identity contradictions. The non-international conflict was turned into a "battlefield" for foreign powers, which led to the transformation of a civil war into a "war with multiple proxies". The United Nations' efforts to mediate the conflict, based on a six-point plan, remained in the draft phase. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have denounced flagrant violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by the al-Assad regime, which has widely used non-discriminatory weapons banned in violation of the Geneva Conventions, 1949. The Bashār al-Assad regime is accused by the international community of being guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, but attempts to incriminate it have failed.
References
Amnesty International Report. "Syria: Secret campaign of mass hanging and extermination at Saydnaya Prison." www.amnesty.org. February 7, 2017. https://www.amnesty.org/ en/latest/news/2017/02/syria-investigation-uncovers-governments-secret-campaign-of-mass-hangings-and-extermination-at-saydnaya-prison/, (accessed February 19, 2021).
Associated Press. "Syria criticizes event on UN body investigationg crimes." www.foxnews.com. September 14, 2018. https://www.foxnews.com/world/syria-criticizes-event-on-un-body-investigating-crimes (accessed February 20, 2021).
BAN, Ki-Moon. "Annex to the letter of the Secretary-General of the United Nationsto the General Assembly and the Security Council." UN.org. June 30, 2012. https://peacemaker.un. org/node/1581 (accessed February 21, 2021).
Begec, Guven. "Letter dated 20th January 2018 from the Charge d'Affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Turkey to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the president of the Security Council." www.securitycouncilreport.org. January 20/22, 2018. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_2018_53.pdf (accessed February 20, 2021).
Cantwell, Douglas. 2016. "The ETF and the Legality of the U.S. Intervantion in Syria under International Law." www.lawfareblog.com. March 28, 2016. https://www.lawfareblog.com/etf-and-legality-us-intervention-syria-under-international-law (accessed February 20, 2021).
EEAS Press Team. 2015. Statement of the International Syria Support Group, European Union External Action. UNIQUE ID:151114_03, Brussels, Belgium: EEAS Press.
Ernstorfer, Anita. 2016. The Syrian conflict: A system conflict analysis. Dubai, UAE: The ARK Group DMCC, CDA Collaborative Learning Projects.
General Assambly Report, UN. 2019. Report of the International Law Commission, Chapter V. A/74/10, New York, NY: General Assambly Office, 141.
Gjevori, Elis. 2019. "Groundbreaking casefiled against the Assad regime at ICC." www.trtworld.com. March 7, 2019. https://www.trtworld.com/middle-east/groundbreaking-case-filed-against-the-assad-regime-at-the-icc-24734, accessed February 27, 2021.
Goldenberg, Jeffrey. April 2016. “The Obama Doctrine”. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/ magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/, accessed February 20, 2021.
HRW. October 15, 2020. “Targeting life in Idlib, Syrian and Russian Strikes on Civilian Infrastructure”. www.hrw.org. https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/10/15/targeting-life-idlib/syrian-and-russian-strikes -civilian-infrastructure, accessed February 19, 2021.
Human Rights Watch Report. 2019. Flurry of Prohibited Weapons Attacks. New York, NY: United Nations.
ICRC. "Article 3, The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols". www.icrc.org. August 12, 1949. https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-0368.pdf, accessed February 19, 2021.
ICRC. Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons (Protocol III). 2005. Geneva: ICRC, 45-46.
“The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols”. October 29, 2010. www.icrc.org. https://www.icrc.org/en/documents/treaties-and-customary-law, accessed February 19, 2021.
International Law Commission. 2007. Article 54, Responsability of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts 2001. Yearbook report, New York and Geneva: United Nations, 137.
Klabbers, Jan. 2013. The substance of international law. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge Uniiversity Press, 185.
Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor Editors. 2018. Syria Cluster Munition Ban Policy. Geneva: Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor.
Lesch, David W. 2019. Syria: A Modern History. Danvers, MA: Polity Histories.
OPCW Press. 2013. Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Syria’s Accession to Chemical Weapons Convention Enters into Force. The Hague: OPCW.
“Syria's Asccession to the Chemical Weapons Convention Enters into Force”. www.opcw.org. October 14, 2013. https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2013/10/syrias-accession-chemical-weapons- convention-enters-force, accessed February 20, 2021.
Perry, Tom, and Angus MacSwan. 2019. “Where do the Kurds fit into Syria's war?” Reuters. January 3, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-explainer/where-do-the-kurds-fit-into-syrias-war-idUSKCN1OK16L (accessed february 21, 2021).
Pinheiro, Paulo Sergio. 2015. “Statement by Mr. Paulo Sergio Pinheiro – Chairman of the International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic” www.ohchr.org. March 2015. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/NewsDetail.aspx?ID=15843&LangID=E, accessed February 19, 2021.
Power, Samantha J. 2014. “S/2014/695 Letter from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General”. www.securitycouncilreport.org. September 23, 2014. https://www.securitycouncilreport. org/atf/cf/%7B 65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_ 2014_695.pdf, accessed February 20, 2021.
Rome Statute of ICC. “Article 7, Rome Statute of International Criminal Court”. www.icc-cpi.int. 1998, 3-4. https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/documents/rs-eng.pdf, accessed February 19, 2021.
Roth, Kenneth. 2018. “World Report: Syria-events of 2018”. www.hrw.org. 2018. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/syria, accessed February 20, 2021.
Rotmann, Philipp, Gerrit Kurtz, and Sarah Brockmeier. 2014. “Major Powers and the Contested Evolution of a Responsability to Protect”. Conflict, Security & Development 14(4): 355-377.
Salem, Mostafa, Asma Alsharif, and Andrew Roche. 2016. “Arab League labels Hezbollah terrorist organization”. www.reuters.com. March 11. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-arabs/arab-league-labels-hezbollah-terroristorganization-idUSKCN0WD239, accessed February 21, 2021.
Sanders-Zakre, Alicia. 2019. “Timeline of Syrian Chemical Weapons Activity 2012-2019”. www.armscontrol.org. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity, accessed February 20, 2021.
Security Council Report, UN. 2017. Briefing on Cooperation between the UN and the League of the Arab States. Monthly forecast, New York, NY: Security Council, UN, 2017.
Security Council Resolution, UN. 2012. “Resolution S/RES/2042 (of the UN Security Council)”. UN.org. April 14, 2012. https://www.un.org/press/en/2012/sc10609.doc.htm, accessed February 21, 2021.
Security Council, UN. 2016. Security Council Resolution for Syria S/RES/2328, S/RES/2332. Monthly forecast, New York, NY: UN.
Security Council, UN. 2017-2020. Security Council Resolutions. Monthly forecast, New York, NY: Security Council UN.
Sherlock, Ruth. November 25, 2011. "Libya's new rulers offer weapons to Syrian rebels". Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8917265/Libyas-new-rulers-offer-weapons-to-Syrian-rebels.html, accessed February 21, 2021.
Syria Call. May 12, 2018. "Many factions in the province of Idilb are moving to merge under the name National Liberation Front". Syria Call. https://www.nedaa-sy.com/en/news/6075, accessed February 21, 2021.
Syrian Network Human Rights Report. 2018. No less than 15 Attacks on Vital Civilian Facilities in Syria. Dubai, UAE: Syrian Network Human Rights.
Syrian Network Human Rights Report. 2017. Russian forces have used incendiary weapons 78 times at least since they intervened in Syria, Rain of Fire. Dubai, UAE: Syrian Network Human Rights, 1.
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 2019. More than 570 thousand people were killed on the Syrian territory within 8 years of revolution demanding freedom, democracy, justice, and equality. Coventry, United Kingdom: Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.
The AsiaN Editor. December 13, 2012. "Syrian Opposition Forces Recognized as People’s Representative in Meeting". The AsiaN. http://www.theasian.asia/archives/49576, accessed February 21, 2021.
The BBC News. August 2, 2012. "Kofi Annan quits UN Syria role". BBC.com. https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-19102206/kofi-annan-quits-un-syria-role, accessed February 21, 2021.
"Syria in civil war" BBC. July 15, 2012. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18849362, accessed February 21, 2021.
"What is 'Islamic State?" BBC. December 2, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29052144, accessed February 21, 2021.
U.S. Department of State. February 22, 2016. "Joint Statement of the United States and the Russian Federation, as Co-Chairs of the ISSG, on Hostilities in Syria". US embassy in Syria. https://sy.usembassy.gov/joint-statement-united-states-russian-federation-co-chairs-issg-cessation-hostilities-syria-february-22-2016/, accessed February 20, 2021.
UK PM's Office Cameron. August 18, 2011. "Joint UK, French and German statement on Syria" www.gov.uk. https://www.ggov.uk/government/news/joint-uk-french-and-german-statement-on-syria, accessed February 20, 2021.
United Nation. 2001. Article 20, Responsability of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts of the ILC. New York, NY: United Nation, Office of Legal Affairs (OLA), 72-74.
United Nations Organization. 1945. Article 51, Chapter VII, Charter of the United Nations. San Francisco, CA: United Nations, 10-11.
UNSMIS. Peacekeeping UN. 2012. "Monitoring a cessation of armed violence in all forms". UN.org. April 21, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/past/unsmis/, accessed February 21, 2021.
USA for UNHCR. 2019. Syria Refugee Crisis Explained. Washington, DC: The UN Refugee Agency.
Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties. 1969. UN. Article 53, Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties. Vienna, Austria: United Nations Treaty Series, vol 1155, 331.
Vohra, Anchal. April 12, 2019. "Breakthrough reached on negotiating Syria's new constitution". www.trtworld.com. https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/breakthrough-reached-on-negotiating-syria-s-new-constitution-25785, accessed February 20, 2021.
Walsh, Nick Paton, and Elise Labbot. September 23, 2013. "Security Council OKsSyria resolution, warns of conseuences." CNN News. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/27/world/meast/un-syria-resolution/index.html, accessed February 20, 2021.
Watch, Human Rights. 2010. World Report 2010. Annual, New York, NY: Human Rights Watch, 55.
Yesiltas, Murat, Merve Seren, and Necdet Ozcelik. 2017. Operation Euphrates Shield, Implementation And Lessons Learned. Istanbul, Turkey: SETA, 49,52.
